Aggregates and Social Aggregates in Sociology

Within sociology, there are two kinds of aggregates that are commonly used: the social aggregate and aggregate data. The first is simply a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time, and the second refers to when we use summary statistics like averages to show something about a population or a social trend. The Social Aggregate A social aggregate is a collection of people who are in the same place at the same time, but who otherwise do not necessarily have anything in common, and who may not interact with each other. A social aggregate is different from a social group, which refers to two or more people who interact regularly and who have things in common, like a romantic couple, a family, friends, classmates, or coworkers, among others. A social aggregate is also different from a social category, which refers to a group of people defined by a shared social characteristic, like gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, age, class, etc. Every day we become part of social aggregates, like when we walk down a crowded sidewalk, eat in a restaurant, ride public transit with other passengers, and shop in stores. The only thing that binds them together is physical proximity. Social aggregates sometimes figure into sociology when researchers use a convenience sample to carry out a research project. They are also present in the work of sociologists who conduct participant observation or ethnographic research. For example, a researcher studying what happens in a particular retail setting might take note of the customers present, and document their demographic makeup by age, race, class, gender, etc., in order to provide a description of the social aggregate that shops at that store. Using Aggregate Data The more common form of an aggregate in sociology is aggregate data. This refers to when social scientists use summary statistics to describe a group or a social trend. The most common type of aggregate data is an average (mean, median, and mode), which allows us to understand something about a group, rather than considering data that represents specific individuals. Median household income is among the most commonly used forms of aggregate data within the social sciences. This figure represents the household income that sits exactly in the middle of the household income spectrum. Social scientists often look at changes in median household income over time in order to see long-term economic trends at the household level. We also use aggregate data to examine differences among groups, like the change over time in median household income, depending on ones  level of education. Looking at an aggregate data trend like this, we see that the economic value of a college degree relative to a high school degree is much greater today than it was in the 1960s. Another common use of aggregate data in social sciences is tracking income by gender and race. Most readers are probably familiar with the concept of the wage gap, which refers to the historical fact that women on average earn less than men and that people of color in the U.S. earn less than white people. This type of research is produced using aggregate data that shows averages of hourly, weekly, and annual earnings by race and gender, and it proves that despite legalized equality, interpersonal discrimination on the basis of gender and race still works to create an unequal society. Updated  by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

A Rose for Emily by William Faulkner Essay - 1064 Words

â€Å"A Rose for Emily† opens with a line that immediately tells the audience that the main character, Emily Grierson, lived a life that was on display; â€Å"When Emily Grierson died, our whole town went to her funeral† (Faulkner 119). The voyeurism that is evident throughout the story, following the life of the main character through the perspective of her watchful community, is introduced by the very first line. In Donaldson’s essay, she explains that many classic southern gothic tales â€Å"bring attention to the spectacle of a woman† (Donaldson 2), which is precisely what any reader of â€Å"A Rose for Emily† will find. Emily Grierson is a spectacle as well as a burden to her community. She is judged based upon her appearance, her actions, oddities and†¦show more content†¦Emily also refuses to partake in the postal system. Her refusal to comply shows that she has her own personal set of laws and conduct. Emily adamantly resists change , even when it is in regards to law or her superiors. Emily shirking her duties as a citizen are only a small part of her eccentric character. Her resistance to change becomes evident in other aspects of her life as the story proceeds. Possibly the most prominent example of her struggle with change is her murder of Homer Barron. In this act she is refusing to let Homer abandon her as well as letting his death keep her from sleeping with him each night. She displays her obsession with control. She is so fixated by having absolute control that she has a relationship with someone deceased, with no responsiveness or will. In the analysis, typical southern gothic women such as Emily represent a different kind of southern woman, â€Å"the roles of women were rapidly changing as the â€Å"woman of piety, submissiveness, and purity began to give way† (Donaldson 3). Although Emily lacks the need to change, she does not fall into the category of traditional either. The town is †Å"half sympathetic toward and half horrified by the spectacle of women betwixt and between tradition and change† (Donaldson 1). This is exactly where Emily Grierson falls; she is not quite traditional but she is not progressive either. For lack of a better phrase, she sticks out like a sore thumb,Show MoreRelatedA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner923 Words   |  4 PagesA Rose for Emily; A Tale of The Old South William Faulkner was born in New Albany, Mississippi in 1897 but lived most of his life in Oxford, a small town nearby. After dropping out of high school then briefly joining the Canadian Air Force, he returned home and completed three terms at the University of Mississippi (Fulton 27). During his early twenties Faulkner spent time in New Orleans and Europe before returning to Oxford and publishing his first book of poems. In 1929 he married Estelle FranklinRead MoreA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner1729 Words   |  7 PagesJune 24, 2015 â€Å"A Rose for Emily† In every neighborhood there is always that one house that is a mystery to everyone. A house that everyone wants to know about, but nobody can seem to be able to dig up any answers. It’s the type of place that you would take any opportunity or excuse to get to explore. The littler that is known, the more the curiosity increases about this mysterious place or person. In the short story â€Å"A Rose for Emily† by William Faulkner, this mysterious person is Emily Grierson, andRead MoreA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner949 Words   |  4 PagesIn William Faulkner’s â€Å"A Rose for Emily† it is clear how Emily’s gender affects how the individuals in the town perceive her. Emily’s gender particularly affects how men understand her. Throughout the whole piece Emily is seen as a helpless individual who is lonely and has suffered losses throughout her life. When the reader reaches the end of the story the actions that Emily has taken is unexpected because of the way she is perceived by the narrator. In the beginning of the story, when the wholeRead MoreA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner1577 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"A Sarah Markins Dr. Bibby ENG 107 February 11, 2015 â€Å"A Rose for Emily† by William Faulkner â€Å"A Rose for Emily†, written by William Faulkner in 1931, follows a series of peculiar events in Miss Emily Griersons life. Written in third person limited, Faulkner utilizes flashbacks to tell of the period between the death of Emily’s father and her own passing. Split into five short sections, the story starts out with the townspeople of Jefferson remembering Emily’s legacy and how each new generation ofRead MoreA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner1552 Words   |  7 PagesRyan Dunn Mrs. Williams English 11 March 11, 2016 In the short story â€Å"A Rose for Emily† by William Faulkner, the reader is given a glimpse of the internal conflict of the main character, living in the past, and the involvement of an over involved society causing the reader to look into the consciousness of an individual haunted by a past and lack of a future. The story is set in a post-Civil War town in the South. He is able to give the reader a glimpse of the practices and attitudes that had unitedRead MoreA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner1507 Words   |  7 Pages1897, William Cuthbert Faulkner was born in New Albany, Mississippi. He stands as one of the most preeminent American writers of the twentieth century. His literary reputation included poetry, novels, short stories, and screenplays. Faulkner won two Pulitzer Prizes for Fiction and the Nobel Prize in Literature. â€Å"A Rose for Emily† is a short fascinating story written by William Faulkner and it was his first short story published in a national m agazine. The story involved an old woman named Emily GriersonRead MoreA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner883 Words   |  4 PagesIn the timeless classic, â€Å"A rose for Emily† by William Faulkner we are introduced to Emily Grierson, a matured sheltered southern woman; born to a proud, aristocratic family presumably during the American Civil War. Through out the short story William Faulkner uses many literary devices such as symbolism, metaphors and allegory to play with â€Å"time† and how time reflects upon his main character Emily Grierson. Emily being one who denies the ability to see time for what it is linear and unchangeableRead MoreA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner1270 Words   |  6 PagesWilliam Faulkner’s short story â€Å"A Rose for Emily† thoroughly examines the life of a strange woman name Emily Grierson who lives in the town of Jefferson. If we examine â€Å"A Rose for Emily† in terms of formalist criticism, we see that the story dramatizes through setting, plot, characterization, and symbolism on how Miss Emily’s life is controlled by a possessive love she had for her father and lover. William Faulkner uses Emily’s life as the protagonist to examine from a formalist aspect. In orderRead MoreA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner1780 Words   |  8 PagesIn 1930, William Faulkner wrote a five-part story entitled â€Å"A Rose for Emily† that follows the life of a young woman named Miss Emily Grierson. Faulkner sets his story in the Old South, soon after the ending of America’s Civil War, and represents the decaying values of the Confederacy (Kirszner Mandell, 2013a, p. 244). One of these values which the text portrays quite often in â€Å"A Rose for Emily†, is the patriarchal custom of society viewing men as having more importance than their female counterpartsRead MoreA Rose For Emily By William Faulkner1277 Words   |  6 PagesMiss Emily Grierson, the main character in the strange short story â€Å"A Rose for Emily† written by William Faulkner. It would be best to examine her in a mental capacity as well as the circumstances that may affect her. Throughout the story, Miss Emily’s unpredictable and eccentric behavior becomes unusual, and the reader, like the townspeople in the story, is left to speculate how Miss Emily has spent years living and sleeping with the body of Homer Barron. An important quote from the story was that

Naive Realism Essay Free Essays

Sensory perception, or how people view things in life, helps to define naà ¯ve realism, meaning that we view the world directly as we see it, in cold, concrete tangibility.  Ã‚   Meaning, I know I have seen a bird and not just something created in my mind.   Ã‚  Representative realism, on the other hand, believes that the mind formulates images—crafts them—as the mind digests information and then creates the images we see within the bounds of our peripheral space. We will write a custom essay sample on Naive Realism Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now I will discuss two differences between naà ¯ve realism and representative realism followed by an assessment of representative realism. First of all, when we view life as a naà ¯ve realist, we can prove with tangible evidence—using some or all of the six senses— that what we perceive is actually there. For example, a birthday cake on a table can be touched, tasted, felt, and smelled, thereby proving its existence.   The representative realist fathoms images seen from an abstract angle.   For example, cloud formations in the sky can be viewed as different objects.   Someone says, â€Å"I see a bear’s face in the cloud, while someone else may see a butterfly. To go one step further, in naà ¯ve realism, we say that time is distributed into ‘now,’ which is a real experience, and ‘the past,’ which did happen but no longer exists, and ‘the future,’ which is yet to occur. Science says we have â€Å"objective reality,† or the here and now.   Along with this, there is â€Å"subjective perception,† or two people seeing the same thing differently.   Classical science, then, broke away from naà ¯ve realism and had to consider the representative realist’s viewpoint.   For example, when we think of dreams or watching a movie, two people may see things very differently. True, they are there, but where is the distinction-mark drawn to separate what is dreamt and what is real, or how do we separate two different viewpoints of the same movie? This, for a naà ¯ve realist, is difficult to answer.   Sure, we can speculate but it only brings us closer to falling in line with the representative’s methodology.   Here’s an analogy to help define this: The representative realist’s brain acts as a baker that follows a recipe, using the ingredients in his kitchen to bake a cake. Slight modifications in the amount of an ingredient can alter the flavor, or even the appearance of the cake.   A potential award-winning three-layer cake will sink in the oven without sufficient yeast.   Thus, the representative realist solves this dilemma by believing the brain is the baker cooking up images, whereas the naà ¯ve realist purely functions on digesting tangible images. Naà ¯ve realism can be criticized and assessed further. If we regard perception as a case whereby individual knowledge creates what we see, the floodgate of personal interpretation is opened.   Can naà ¯ve realism swim in these floodgates of varied perceptions?   If situations are regarded simply, then the naà ¯ve realist can understand what he sees. However, life is not a simple cookie-cutter mold.   Even something as simple as a lump of wax seeks varied interpretation when we add a new ingredient, say a wick and a flame.   Now the wax takes on new features and varied perceptions.   Even the same person can visualize the same object in many different ways. Look at a print created by M.C. Escher and you will see how quickly the mind can shift its perceptive view of the same thing. In final assessment of representative realism, it can be seen that it does, in fact, provides a significant and worthwhile advancement in our understanding of humankind experiences.   For, living in a world where the psychological makeup of an individual holds such lasting presence, it is difficult to image only believing in the naà ¯ve realist’s way of thinking.   However, just to be fair, naà ¯ve realism will always have a place in human intellectual perception.   It’s up to the individual to determine how she sees things. SOURCES: http://www.arrod.co.uk/essays/representative-realism.php http://www.planetpapers.com/Assets/4368.php http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Dewey/Dewey_1916/Dewey_1916_09.html          How to cite Naive Realism Essay, Essay examples

Feasibility of Gumamela Leaf Extract as Antibiotic Sample Essay Example For Students

Feasibility of Gumamela Leaf Extract as Antibiotic Sample Essay Gumamela is a bush that grows from one metre up to 4 metres high. Gumamela is besides known as: Hibiscus. China Rose and Shoeflower. In the Philippines. gumamela is cultivated as an cosmetic works. The gumamela flower comes in many colourss: ruddy. yellow. orange. white. purple. pink and other colour combinations. Gumamela leaves. normally blended with Rose Hip has long been used in the Middle East and Okinawa as herbal tea. Today. the usage of gumamela tea is deriving world-wide popularity – including Asia. Gumamela ( Hibiscus ) is associated with length of service. Gumamela as Herbal Medicine As herbal medical specialty. gumamela flower. foliages and roots are used. Gumamela has the undermentioned medicative features: expectorator. diuretic. cream. anti-infectious. anti-inflammatory. antipyretic. analgesic and refrigerant. Preparation A ; Use of Gumamela: There are two ways to use gumamela as herbal medical specialty. One is dried and the other is fresh. For Dried gumamela. roll up the flower. leaves and/or roots. Wash. so cut into little pieces and Sun prohibitionist. To utilize as decoction. boil the dried gumamela parts ( 1/4 cup dried gumamela in 1 glass of H2O ) To do a decoction from fresh gumamela. Wash gumamela flower and/or leaves. cut into little pieces and furuncle ( 1/3 cup in 1 glass of H2O ) . allow cool and drink. Use Gumamela as Poultice: Poultice is the usage or fresh or dried herbs that is mashed. crushed or pounded – frequently heated ( boiled in H2O to soften and heat the herb ) and applied straight to the tegument. A clean fabric or gauze can be used to assist the cataplasm stay in topographic point. Gumamela is used for the intervention of: †¢ Bronchitis – as an expectorator†¢ Coughs. sore pharynx†¢ Fever – as refrigerating drink†¢ Treats dysentery†¢ Urinary piece of land infection. vesica infections†¢ High blood force per unit area†¢ Prevention of irregularity†¢ Concerns†¢ Boils. swelling A ; abscesses. epidemic parotitiss Application A ; Use of Gumamela: †¢ Decoction is used to handle: Bronchitis. coughs. febrility. dysentery. urinary and bladder infections. high blood force per unit area and irregularity. †¢ Poultice is applied externally on the stricken country. This is used to handle: concerns ( on the brow ) . furuncles. swelling. abscesses and epidemic parotitiss. †¢ Intake of gumamela ( entirely or assorted with papaia or papaya seeds ) specially in big measures can be an aborticide. hypertext transfer protocol: //rite-medicinal-plant. blogspot. com/2010/12/herbal-medicine_5503. hypertext markup language In AsiaIn Thailand. rozelle is drunk as a tea. believed to besides cut down cholesterin. It can besides be made into a vino. particularly if combined with Chinese tealeaves. in the ratio of 4:1 by weight ( 1/5 Chinese tea ) . It is besides intoxicated cold and sugared. The drink is popular in Malaysia and Indonesia every bit good. In China. candied flower petals are on occasion available. In Mandarin Chinese. it is called luoshenhua ( ) . In Europe hypertext transfer protocol: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Hibiscus_teahypertext transfer protocol: //www. rjptonline. org/RJPT/RJPT_4_3_2011_Abstract. pdf Health benefitsThe tea is popular as a natural water pill ; it contains vitamin C and minerals. and is used traditionally as a mild medical specialty. Dieters or people with kidney jobs frequently take it without adding sugar for its good belongingss and as a natural water pill. A 2008 USDA survey shows devouring hibiscus tea lowers blood force per unit area in a group of prehypertensive and mildly hypertensive grownups. Three cups of tea day-to-day resulted in an mean bead of 8. 1 mmHg in their systolic blood force per unit area. compared to a 1. 3 mmHg bead in the voluntaries who drank the placebo drink. Study participants with higher blood force per unit area readings ( 129 or above ) had a greater response to hibiscus tea: their systolic blood force per unit area went down by 13. 2 mmHg. These informations support the thought that imbibing hibiscus tea in an sum readily incorporated into the diet may play a function in commanding blood force per unit area. although more research is required. .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 , .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 .postImageUrl , .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 , .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484:hover , .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484:visited , .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484:active { border:0!important; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484:active , .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484 .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u44b878bc99fdd40bd8f1fcded3855484:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Animal Farm 7 EssayHibiscus rosa-sinensis has a figure of medical utilizations in Chinese herbology. Lokapure s. g. et. al their research indicates some possible in decorative tegument attention ; for illustration. an infusion from the flowers of Hibiscus rosa- sinensis has been shown to map as an anti-solar agent by absorbing ultraviolet radiation. In the Indian traditional system of medical specialty. Ayurveda. hibiscus. particularly white hibiscus and ruddy hibiscus ( Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ) . is considered to hold medicative belongingss. The roots are used to do assorted mixtures believed to bring around complaints such as cough. hair loss or hair graying. As a hair intervention. the flowers are boiled in oil along with other spices to do a medicated hair oil. The foliages and flowers are ground into a all right paste with a small H2O. and the resulting lathery paste is used as a shampoo plus conditioner. hypertext transfer protocol: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Hibiscus Immune systemVitamin C is found in high concentrations in immune cells. and is consumed rapidly during infections. It is non certain how vitamin C interacts with the immune system ; it has been hypothesized to modulate the activities of scavenger cells. the production of cytokines and lymph cells. and the figure of cell adhesion molecules in monocytes. Antihistamine Vitamin C is a natural antihistamine. It both prevents histamine release and increases the detoxification of histamine. A 1992 survey found that taking 2 gms vitamin C daily lowered blood histamine degrees 38 per centum in healthy grownups in merely one hebdomad. It has besides been noted that low concentrations of serum vitamin C has been correlated with increased serum histamine degrees.

The Red Badge Of Courage Essays - The Red Badge Of Courage

The Red Badge of Courage The Red Badge of Courage is now universally recognized as a masterpiece, although when it first appeared in book form in 1896 (two months later in England than in the United States) it provoked mixed reactions. The English critics, in fact, brought it to the attention of the American public, which had generally ignored it. Those early readers who approved saw in it a "true and complete picture of war," a book which "thrusts aside romantic machinery" in favor of dramatic action and photographic revelation. Its critics attacked it for what they considered its utter lack of literary form - its "absurd similes," "bad grammar," and "violent straining after effect." Edward Garnett, however, praised its "perfect mastery of form," and Conrad, who had known Crane, said in 1926 that The Red Badge of Courage was a "spontaneous piece of work which seems to spurt and flow like a tapped stream from the depths of the writer's being," and he found it "virile and full of gentle sympathy! " while it was happily marred by no "declamatory sentiments." Throughout the first four decades of the century the book was variously praised and condemned for its naturalism or "animalism," its realism and its extraordinary style. V. S. Pritchett, writing in 1946, may be said to represent the prevailing opinion when he declares that Crane's "verisimilitude," his grasp of "human feelings," and his "dramatic scenes and portraits" give The Red Badge of Courage a place in the literature of war. It is only in the forties that serious literary analysis of the book begins. It had of course long been recognized that novels such as Zola's La Debacle and Tolstoy's Sevastopol and War and Peace had had some influence on Crane, and that he had made use of Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (which had first appeared serially in the Century Magazine) as well as accounts of particular campaigns; his brother William, for one thing, was an expert on the strategy of the Battle of Chancellorsville, and there are many parallels with this battle to be found in The Red Badge. But scholars like Pratt, Webster, Osborn, and Stallman began to call attention to the possible role played by less significant factors, like Crane's personal acquaintance with General Van Petten, an instructor at Claverack College, who might have provided him with a first-hand account of the Battle of Antietam. Crane may also have derived some less important conceptions from Civil War potboilers like Hinman's C! orporal Si Klegg or Kirkland's The Captain of Company K. Although Crane himself acknowledged an early influence by Kipling's novels, it was S. C. Osborn who pointed out that the famous "red wafer" image at the close of Chapter 9 probably had its source in Kipling's The Light That Failed, and who thereby inaugurated a discussion (maintained chiefly by R. W. Stallman) about the meaning of this image. The "wafer" may be a wax sealing wafer or it may be, as Stallman suggests, an allusion to the Christian communion wafer, but it lies at the center of the controversy concerning the alleged Christian symbolism of the novel. Discussions of the structure and total meaning of the novel date from about 1950. John Schroeder believes that Crane has not achieved a successful accommodation of antithetical elements: "War as man- made blasphemy" is not "distinguishable from nature's pattern of serene wisdom"; and he feels that the "putting off of the Old Man [by the youth] . . . is largely a matter of accident." R. W. Stallman, on the other hand, asserts that a consistent, meaningful pattern unifies the story. The Red Badge "is about the self - combat of a youth who fears and stubbornly resists change and spiritual growth. . . . Henry's regeneration is brought about by the death of Jim Conklin." Psychological and mythic criticism of a book whose action centers mainly about a "wound" was perhaps inevitable, and Maxwell Geismar (1953) explains that "Fleming's shame at his psychic wound . . . led him to yearn for the physical wound." The basic pattern of the narrative conforms to that of "acceptance after a t! rial by ordeal." Geismar further sees this as all a reflection of

The Marshall Plan essays

The Marshall Plan essays After the devastating effects of WWII, Europes economic and social conditions where in shambles. The personal suffering and internal upheavals threatened chaos. There was a lack of coal, steel, electrical power, railroad cars, locomotives, trucks, oil, and grain. All of the West European countries suffered political instability. This was the Europe, Secretary of State, George C. Marshall, saw when he attended a meeting of Foreign Ministers in Moscow on March 1, 1947. In this meeting, which was called to ease tensions, Secretary Marshall became disillusioned over the chance of cooperation with the Soviet Union. After a stormy interview with Joseph Stalin, Secretary Marshall knew that Stalin meant to profit from Europes maladies. Marshall was convinced that the only hope for Europes recovery lay in the United States. He could see the United States needed to help Europe, not only for moral reasons, but also it was in the interest of the United States in order to curb communism and Europe was the United States biggest customer. On June 5, 1947 Secretary Marshall delivered his classic speech at Harvard University, thus starting the European Recovery Program (ERP), what would later be known, all over the world, as The Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan constituted one of our countries finest foreign policy moments. It signals the United States unequivocal resolve to assist an economically struggling Europe and assume a position of leadership. At the Harvard speech Secretary Marshall announced, Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos...Any government that is willing to assist in the task of recovery will find full cooperation, I am sure, on the part of the United States government. The Marshall Plan was set up for a limited period of four years (1948-1952). The money given by the United States included money for loans. The Eur ...

What Are the Distinct Marks of Catholic Anglicanism Essay

What Are the Distinct Marks of Catholic Anglicanism - Essay Example The designation seems to date from 1838 at the University of Oxford toward the beginning of the movement centered on restoring the Caroline Divines' 17th-century High Church ideals through a Catholic revival in the Church of England (Nockles, P.1994:270). Catholic Anglicanism professes a high doctrine of the Church and Sacraments, ascribes great significance to the apostolic succession (meaning an episcopal lineage reaching back to the apostles), argues for the Anglican Confession's clear-cut historical continuity with the early Church in the first centuries of the Christian era, and, finally, defends the crucial autonomy of the Church from any undue interference of the State. Toward the end of the late 1820s into the early 1830s, Oriel College in Oxford harbored a number of quite erudite young fellows whose earnest concerns about the shortcomings of the 19th-century Church of England led them to unite with each other together with a slightly-older priest and professor of poetry at the college, John Keble, in commitment to renewal of the church (Chadwick, O.1990:135). On 14 July 1833 at Oxford, John Keble preached the Assize Sermon, officially directed to the judges and officers of the civil and criminal courts at the outset of a new session or assize (Cross, F. L. and Livingstone, E.A.1997:1205). The sermon entitled National Apostasy virtually indicted the English nation for slighting God by trying to run the Church as a mere branch of the government, rather than respect its mission as an emissary of God, independent of the legislative interference of a parliament composed of Anglican laymen (Reed, J.S.1996:8). Keble's delivery provoked a national uproar, marking a significant juncture in the erstwhile beginnings of the spiritual renewal known as the Oxford or Tractarian Movement - Tractarian, since the movement was to be further energized by a series of ninety Tracts, in leaflets as well as much lengthier treatises or catenae, published over the course of the next eight years (Reed, J.S.1996:8). Oriel was the highly intellectual College of the Anglican-operated University of Oxford which prepared the vast majority of clergy to serve in the Church of England. John Henry Newman, Vicar of the University Church, Richard Hurrell Froude, a junior fellow of Oriel, and William Palmer, a fellow of Worcester, joined with the aforementioned priest and professor, John Keble, to follow up his clearly-provocative challenge to the status quo with a succession of Tracts for the Times (Herring, G. 2002:25). Several historical factors contributed to the movement's immediate popularity and growth. In the wake of the Industrial Revolution, the Church in the 19th Century faced serious problems over the emergence of wretched pockets of urban poverty, as well as increasingly cavalier attitudes toward the faith in the face of secular perspectives on human advancement (Scudder, V.D. 1898). In the field of social justice, the Tractarian leaders thoroughly repudiated any compartmentalizing of spirituality and conceived of religion as asserting dominion over the whole of life. In the name of the Catholic faith, they roundly condemned the veritable worship of material things that came in as a by-product of the Industrial Revolution. (Kenyon, R.1933:). The steady weakening of Church life and the spread of Liberalism in theology prompted serious worries among the English clergy. More immediately, a threat to Anglican identity emerged from the abrupt removal of long-standing criteria for service in state office and the repeal the last of the Penal Laws with discriminatory practices (Cross, F. L.

MPH503, Infertility and Public Health, Mod 5 Case Assignment Essay

MPH503, Infertility and Public Health, Mod 5 Case Assignment - Essay Example Issues with infertility are painful psychologically as well as physically. There is always the self defining issue of "what is wrong with me?" The reduction in self esteem is very difficult to deal with and when family who are supposed to be support dont understand what is wrong but what the couple is going through, it becomes even more difficult (Schneider, 2005). Further, much of the treatments are painful and sometimes embarrassing so there is much stress related to the treatments for both of members of this couple. There are many things that can be done for support for this couple. Trying to get them involved in a support group, however, is probably one of the most important as no one can really understand their issues as well as someone else with the same type issues. This allows them to talk about them with a group of people that feel the same way and will not tell them to go on vacation and everything will be better. Focused counseling is shown to help when it is couple targeted as shown in a study completed by Glover, McLillan, and Weaver (2008). There is some controversy in the literature about the type of support that is given to a couple undergoing in vitro fertilization. According to Knoll, Kuenti, and Bauer, (2008) some kinds of support may turn out to be more detrimental than helpful. Women seem to benefit from a different kind of help than their spouses. Women seems to do best with emotional support while men do best with instrumental support. Neither kind of support in the literature seems to make as big a difference in stress levels as groups involvement as in support groups. One of the recommended approaches is to help the couple look at and find new meaning for their life goals. This is sometimes best done in discussion with people that have been through the same issues as they have. Those couples that have been in trial for 5 years or more and are still unsuccessful need this kind of help more than

Exams often do little more than measure a person's ability to take Research Paper

Exams often do little more than measure a person's ability to take exams. Should exams be outlawed in favor of another assessm - Research Paper Example This is a widespread practice in universities to normal exams, where the main goal is judgment rather than using formative forms of assessment where the main objective is simply learning. A number of researchers have pointed out that there is reliance on exams as many educators evaluate their students in the same manner as they were evaluated when they were learners (Dikli, 2003). Coherently, phrases such as â€Å"Final Examination Marks† can be read in reports forms of today’s students (Boston, 2002). Normally referred to as end-of-the-year exams, such forms of assessment are intended to determine the extent of a student’s education. Simply put, did a learner learn what he/she was expected to learn and to what level? It is with these marks that an educator can assign a student a particular grade. Formative assessment, also known as assessment for learning, is a method, which is maybe, more than anything else, a benchmark for a teacher to decide what they require to do to push the student forward. It is, therefore, not for grading, but learning. This paper finds that formative assessment is a better tool for assessing a student when compared to exams and the findings will be discussed below. Exams An exam is an assessment tool planned to gauge a test-taker’s (student) skill, knowledge, aptitude and, at times, physical fitness or classification in numerous other topics. An exam might be administered verbally, on a computer, on paper or in a secured room, which needs a test taker physically and mentally to carry out a set of skills. Exams differ in style, requirements or rigor (Boston, 2002). For instance, in a closed examination conducted in a majority of schools, a test-taker is normally needed to depend on his/her memory to reply to particular items while, in an open test, the test-taker might utilize one or more supplementary sources. An exam might be administered officially or casually (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). A case of a casual exam would be a reading test given by an educator to a student. A case of an official exam, on the other hand, would be a final test given by an educator in a restricted classroom (Boston, 2002). Educators use these results to assign tests scores or grades. A test score might be understood in line with a criterion or norm, or even, at times, both (Dikli, 2003). The norm is that an exam might be established autonomously or by numerical analysis, or a considerable number of participants. Normally, the difficulty or format of the exam is reliant on the educational philosophy of the educator, class size, subject matter, requirement of accreditation and the policy of the institution (Boston, 2002). However, to what extent do exams assist students succeed in life? Is it a vital tool for assessing today’s students in a world filled with many individual who think creativity is better than the normal form of education? A lot of students today are worried about the amount of tim e, which is spent on exam preparation, and all the tension that is experienced (Boston, 2002). As a result, a good number of institutions are taking on progress assessments. Maybe, another option, nevertheless, should be for schools to do away with examinations (Dikli, 2003). Anxiety and stress are widespread in elementary, secondary, as well as university students these days, as

Factors Affecting Trade Volume

Factors Affecting Trade Volume Introduction The area of research for this thesis focuses on empirical study determinants of trade volume of Asian developing economies; which constitute the success of global trade. The relationship among determinants of trade studied in the context of developing economies which includes: Pakistan, India, China, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Factors those affects on trade includes: Tariff, Import duty, Inflation, Foreign Direct Investment (F.D.I), Exchange Rate, Transportation Cost and Gross domestic Product (G.D.P) affect on trade volume, based on gravity equation framework in which foreign trade depend in between countries. To accomplish this purpose by using standard gravity model, study comprises multivariate regression on trade of Asian economies. Study found that trade depend on distance in between countries, wealth, tariff and non tariff barriers (N.T.Bs) like exchange and capital control. Export volume of an economy measures trade volume of a particular country to indicate economic growth of a particular country (Tamirisa, 1999). An Economy that have positive balance of trade, improve economic growth of a particular country due to effective economic and financial performance. Besides this basic affects exchange and capital controls influence trade through other channels, for example, transaction cost, exchange rate, foreign exchange risk and trade financing. Capital control in particular country affect on trade in goods by reducing inter temporal trade and portfolio diversification, which may substitute or complement intra temporal trade (Tamirisa, 1999). Therefore, this thesis aims to study determinants of trade volume based on developing economies. A restricted trade policies imposed by a government is harm for a trade. Study found that world trade organization (W.T.O) rules regulations foster trade volume based on strategic planning of global trade at this competitive era. Despite the net economic and social benefits; most governments reduce subsidies and open economic trade. It has been realized in this study manufacturing tariffs remained high in developing countries. However; subsidies and trade policies affects on agricultural, textile and service industries of both rich and poor countries which continued hamper efficient resource allocation, economic growth and poverty alleviation (Anderson, 2004). Fundamentally, capital controls affects on trade by decreasing inter temporal trade and portfolio diversification. The impact of trade in goods depends, if trade in goods and trade in factors are substitute (for example, as found in the basic Heckscher-Ohlin model) the volume of trade in goods likely to fall. If trade in goods and trade in factors are complement (as, for example, in some models with increasing returns to scale), the volume of trade in goods increases (Tamirisa, 1999). The empirical evidence indicates that foreign direct investment tend to increase host countries export and import due to liquidity in a financial market. Foreign direct investment and exports are alternative strategies in this case. Since multinational companies (M.N.Cs) avoid to pay tariff. They initiate subsidiary companies at the host country to cross subsidize in other countries based on strategic management. Capital controls often limit business opportunities for hedging foreign exchange risk and trade financing, thus inhibit trade (Tamirisa, 1999). The gravity equation is one of the most empirically successful studies. It relates trade flow to GDP, distance and other factors that affects on the volume of trade (Anderson and Wincoop, 2003). For this purpose, the overall effects of trade barriers on Asian developing economies empirically studied, analyzed, tested and resulted. Justification For The Research This study is timely significant for theoretical, methodological and practical reasons. With regards to theoretical significance; this study contributes to the literature based on their specification. Determinants of trade volume of Asian developing economies comprises, Pakistan, India, China, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to identify their trade issues with respect to other regions based on gravity equation framework. As mentioned in empirical literature, determinants of trade volume contribute their significance at this competitive era, where lot of resistance exists at global market. While competition indicate threat for any type of business either manufacturing or service industry. On other hand trade barriers like Tariff, Import duty, Capital Control through Foreign direct investment (F.D.I), Transportation cost and Inflation raise more critical issues to survive in this competitive era. This study also practically signifies from management prospective for those entrepreneurs intending to cross subsidize their business at global market to retain their leading market share. Results of this study provide guidelines for entrepreneurs to identify their, Economic and Socio-Cultural issues that lead to trade barriers for their investment. This study support them based on empirical understanding about trade barriers of developing economies and how it affects on trade. Finally, this study will benefit on strategic decision making to implement trade policies in global market. This chapter comprises the foundation of this study. It introduces research objective and focus on trade and its determinants based on theoretical practical justification of this research. Then major terms used in this study are discussed comprehensively. Literature Review This chapter based on comprehensive literature review, those are useful for this study. The objective is to evaluate determinants of trade volume in the context of literature review. To this end, this chapter divided into three sections. First section deal broadly with trade and its determinants for which this thesis first explains determinants of trade and then model based empirical finding those are relevant to this research. The second section will investigate theoretical perspective and determinants of trade. The third section interlinks determinants of trade with empirical findings based on Asian developing economies. In short, this thesis first discuss trade theories as mentioned in the literature and then pertinent model present; which will not only explain trade theories but also highlight the link determinants of trade and developing economies. Overview Of International Trade It is a well accepted idea that free trade benefits all countries around the world; it is also a well known fact that hardly any country has always been practice free trade policies. Traditionally trade theories contend that government intervenes on foreign trade because of political pressure from interest groups. Since import can pose a threat to domestic industries, these industries lobby intensely for trade protection (Krueger, 1974, Pincus 1975, Mayer 1984). Other studies suggest that governments are tempted to use trade bargaining to gain larger share from global trade (Morishima, 1989); [Cheng, Liu, and Yang, 1999]. International trade is more or less substitute of foreign investment. On the contrary factor proportion hypothesis [Helpman, 1984; Markusen, 1984; Helpman and Krugman, 1985; Ethier and Horn, 1990] seems to predict that international trade and investments are complement as firms take advantage of factor price differences through cross border vertical integration. According to Aizenman, Joshua and Ilan Noy (2005), it is common to expect bidirectional linkage between FDI and trade. However, it is difficult to indicate whether inflows and outflows of FDI affect directly on trade in different types of goods and services. Study found there is strong feedback relationship between FDI and trade; especially in manufacturing industries. There is some evidence indicate trade enhancement lead to extensive competition in domestic and global market at this era (S. and W. Chaisrisawatsuk, 2007). Economic integration promises to raise trade volume through trade creation by engaging trade agreements. At micro level, interdependence between international trade and investment is magnified through intra firm trade (trade among foreign affiliates), outsourcing of raw material, intermediate goods, output and firms vertical integration behavior (S. and W. Chaisrisawatsuk, 2007). Since trade liberalization implies a liberated (less costly) movement of goods and services while investment liberalization implies better environment for movement of resources. Increasing international trade based on sustainable comparative advantage is a key condition for countries to realize gain from global trade. If trade and investment are complementary, FDI inflow supposed to enhance gain from trade. In addition, FDI inflow to the host country expected to improve efficiency and productivity of factors production, therefore it enhances the countrys competitiveness (S. and W. Chaisrisawatsuk, 2007). This study applies gravity model approach to investigate the relationship between international trade and foreign investment. Generally, countries with similar resources produce similar products. However, existence of two way trade (Bilateral Trade) in similar products and two way investments among developed as well as developing economies indicates that there is a room for trade and investment. Thus, simultaneous equation estimate is more appropriate approach used in order to capture feedback effects between trade and investment in order to examine relationships between trade and investment (S. and W. Chaisrisawatsuk, 2007). Factors Influence International Trade Study found that tariff, inflation, transportation costs are critical factors affect on trade of developing economies. The empirical evidence indicates foreign direct investment tends to increase host countries exports, although the impact on imports is relatively weak. In the presence of tariff barriers, however restrictions on foreign direct investment distort trade. According to the static general equilibrium model, trade is determined by the wealth and size of countries. While distance has a negative effect on trade, in a part because of trade costs (e.g., transportation and communication) are likely increase with respect to distance. Tariff barrier in the importing countries also tend to have a negative, albeit insignificant effect on exports into these countries. While Per capita, G.D.P and Population, on other hand, have significant positive effects on exports (Tamirisa, 1999). Factors those affect on trade justify in detail below. Tariff A tariff is a tax on import which is collected by the federal government to build infrastructure of a particular country. Tariff usually aims first to limit import and second to raise government revenue, thats reason multinational corporations (M.N.Cs) avoid to pay tariff. And initiate subsidiary companies at host country through cross subsidization to retain their leading market share at global market. Empirical studies found tariff lead to trade distortion due to it have a negative effect on trade which raises the cost of trade. Due to tariff rates significantly reduce export of developing and transition economies (Tamirisa, 1999). Model predicts the presence of trade barriers, such as tariffs and non-tariff barriers (N.T.Bs) diminish trade volume. The empirical study found tariff rate interact with the estimated share of free trade. Since trade distortions caused by tariffs; which indicate low growth rate in a country that needs to import more under free trade regime. Government intervenes in foreign transactions by imposing tariff on import of foreign goods. Therefore, tariff has two effects on economy, namely distortion of resource allocation and the transfer of revenue. Thus, distortion effects of tariffs on the growth rate evidently hinge free trade (Lee, 1993). Empirical study found large variation in trade, caused by tariffs and transportation cost. Tariff liberalization shift trade from rich to poor and domestic to global countries, this estimates imply that elimination of tariff create more trade for poor countries. It is also implies that tariff elimination would divert trade away from continental to preferential trading areas. It has been studied in empirical literature tariffs, distance and production costs are important factors affect on trade; study found tariffs reduce trade significantly. Where low tariff rate is exists among organization of economic cooperation and development (O.E.C.D) countries. While high tariff is exist among Non-O.E.C.D countries. Therefore elimination of tariff rate would raise global trade significantly (Lai and Zhu, 2004). Inflation It has been realized in comprehensive literature review inflation tends to hamper the volume of trade and slow down economic growth. The initial effects arise from decreased in domestic demand. Thus, result rises in price fluctuation relative to those competing or importing countries (Lovasy, 1962). The initial affects of inflation is an increase the price of goods and services in domestic market, which makes selling on that market more profitable than export. Since market price influence a volume of trade. However inflationary affects tend to encourage such change with a view to raise the price of commodity and maintain it high level. The creation of substitute adversely affects on the volume of trade. If inflation prolong over a period of years, trade will adversely affect through structural changes in an economy (Lovasy, 1962). The affects of inflation on exports may be counteracted by government actions in various forms like: adjustment of exchange rates, retention quota, subsidies on exports (either straight or through multiple rate practices). In other hand devaluation or gradual depreciation of exchange rate will raise the prices of trade (Lovasy, 1962). Since many other factors influence export, inflation can be a visible affects if it lead the price out of line with price in competing countries or importing areas (Lovasy, 1962). On the other hand, extensive empirical research such as Levine and Renelt (1992), Levine and Zervos (1993), Stanners (1993), Bruno and Easterly (1998) and Easterly (2003) indicate negative relationship between inflation and economic growth (Chowdhury and Siregar, 2004). Transportation Cost Transportation cost is one of the significant factor affects on trade. The importance of geography has been recognized by Moneta (1959) as well as by Hummels (1998). It was found that distance is a critical factor in-between country, whether they share common border or they are landlocked. The infrastructure depends on transport and communications network. Study found that infrastructure is quantitatively important factor to determine transport cost (LimÃÆ' £o and Venables, 2001). Generally these types of cost associated in foreign trade. 1. Physical Shipping cost. 2. Time related cost (Lead Time). 3. Cost of cultural unfamiliarity. Among these costs physical and shipping cost obvious with respect to distance in a trade (Frankel, 1997 quoted from Linnemann, 1996). Generally neighbor countries have more integrated logistics network that reduce number of trans-shipments. Second, neighboring countries are more likely to have transit and custom agreements that reduce transit time and translate into lower shipping and insurance cost. This suggests that distance affects trade volumes through transportation costs and through other channels such as information, which is often associated with distance. It has been realized that poor communication network leads to higher transportation cost, which significantly affect on the volume of trade (LimÃÆ' £o and Venables, 2001). Transportation cost negatively affect on trade volumes due to complex geographical location, infrastructure, administrative barriers and the structure of shipping industry. Based on comprehensive literature review, land locked countries face transportation cost fifteen percent higher and lower trade volumes than representative coastal countries (LimÃÆ' £o and Venables, 2001). Exchange And Capital Control Study found that most countries have liberalize policy on transfers payments; since economic policy is increasingly shifting toward liberalize transaction. Exchange control acts as a tax on foreign currency required for purchasing goods and services. Besides this basic effect, exchange and capital controls influence trade through other channels as well, for example, transaction cost; exchange rates, foreign exchange risk and trade financing. Study found that exchange and capital control often raise transaction cost (Tamirisa, 1999). Furthermore, exchange and capital controls can reduce trade by limiting the transfer of technology, managerial expertise and skills through foreign direct investment. Capital controls often limit business opportunities for hedging foreign exchange risk and trade financing. Thus inhibit trade volume in the presence of capital control. Exchange and capital control on other hand, often associated with an overvalued exchange rate, which inhibit trade. Moreover capital controls help to retain domestic savings and higher saving leads to higher investment in export sectors; thus trade may increase (Tamirisa, 1999). Study found that capital controls are critical barrier to export into developing and transition economies; but not to industrialized countries. These findings attribute to capital controls, which noticeably reduce export into developing and transition economies and have only a minor negative impact on export for developed economies. Reason is that industrial economies have relatively liberal regimes for global capital movement. While many developing and transition economies continue maintain various capital controls (Tamirisa, 1999). Exchange and capital controls affect trade through interrelated channels, including transaction cost, and volatility of exchange rate, inter temporal trade, and portfolio diversification. Study realized exchange and capital control have a negative impact on export. However, this result varies depending on the level of development in the country and type of exchange and capital control. These results may reflect the extent, to which restrictions on current payment and transfers have been liberalized (Tamirisa, 1999). Gross Domestic Product Trade cost operates primarily via price. In the context of monopolistic competition model, difficulty is created by the complexity of constant elasticity substitution (C.E.S) price index in the presence of asymmetric trade costs. To resolve this difficulty, three approaches have been taken: 1. G.D.P price indexes are used to capture the price effects in the gravity equation as Bergstrand (1985, 1989) and Baier and Bergstrand (2001). 2. Estimated border effects are used to measure the price effects, as in Anderson and Wincoop (2003) and Balistreri and Hillberry (2001). 3. Fixed effects are used to account for the price effects, as in Harrigan (1996), Hummels (1999), Redding and Venables (2002), and others (Lai and Zhu, 2004). Turn to an empirical investigation export from one country to other trading partners depends on gross domestic product (G.D.P). By using [Rauchs, 1999] classification sample consist in groups: homogeneous goods, differentiated goods in between categories. On the basis of gravity equation framework trade in each of these groups move from homogeneous to differentiated goods; studies found elasticity of export with respect to G.D.P rise significantly. These findings are empirically significant both economically and statistically. The G.D.P of exporting country is found to be a powerful explanatory variable to explain trade relations. There are demographic variables such as G.D.P and population which relate to the size and stage of economic development based on export and import in between countries. These factors are included in the study despite controlling the effect of dependent variable to determine whether size of an economy has an independent influence on trade relations (Feenstra, Markusen, and Rose, 2001). The ratio of trade volume to real G.D.P is often used as an indicator of an economys openness to international trade (Prasad and Gable, 1998). Import Duty Import duties refer to a tax in which importer pay to the government in order to bring foreign products in a particular country. Most of the import duties are figured in a percentage on declared value of the commodity. An import duty differs from product to product and depends on commodity is being imported. Its declared value of origin country. While product group used to assess import duties in between two countries (Sampson and Yeats, 1976). The competitiveness of domestic manufacturers adversely affected vis-ÃÆ'  -vis import because importer liable to pay additional charges due to execution of projects financed by a trading partners (Mukhopadhyay, 2002). Like India fetched excessive price because of banning imports on some goods, they charged very high duty running around the price of goods. These non traditional goods (mainly consumer durables) provided great stimulus to the contraband trade. However, when there is a massive scale of contraband trade, country face substantial loss in term of revenue (Sarvananthan, 1994). Foreign Direct Investment Study found foreign direct investment change industrial structure and trade flow across a country. Since FDI help in cost reduction and export promotion at host countries through up date technology. Foreign direct Investment (FDI) also provides financial resource for investment at a host country. In other hand it provides foreign exchange thats positively affect on the balance of trade. Indeed, in the wake of debt crisis, FDI has come to be viewed as an increasingly important source of revenue for developing countries (Goldar and Ishigami, 1999). Advantage of FDI is that it assists the host country to improve its export performance. By raising the level of efficiency and the standards of product quality, FDI makes a positive impact on the host countrys export. Furthermore, it provides better access to export in foreign markets. According to the Hymer-Kindleberger theory (Kindleberger, 1969) foreign owned firms investment at the host country; if it possesses competitive advantage which allows them sustainable growth. Foreign direct investment plays significant role to promote export and to change industrial structure of Asian countries through transfer of technology. Dunnings eclectic theory of international trade (Dunning, 1988) explain overseas market served by enterprises in different geographical location around the world. According to this theory, firms invest in a country if following conditions are satisfied: Firm possesses some ownership advantages vis-ÃÆ'  -vis firms with other nationalities serving particular markets. It is more beneficial for the firm to produce in foreign country due to update technology and Infrastructure of a particular country (Goldar and Ishigami, 1999). FDI contribute on economic growth of the region through cost reduction and export promotion. On other hand, rapid growth is being attained by the region due to update technology and infrastructure for a particular country. As growth leads to expansion of both domestic and global market (Goldar and Ishigami, 1999). FDI flow in Asia has shifted over a time from Asian Newly Industrialize Economies (N.I.Es) to A.S.E.A.N. While china and Japan have became persistent source of FDI in developing countries (Goldar and Ishigami, 1999). During the past two decades, Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore, and Hong Kong witnessed most rapid economic growth in all developing countries. Their export oriented strategy emphasis on foreign investment and trade is considered the main cause for their success (Amirahmadi and Weiping Wu, 1994). Many countries established Export Processing Zones and Special Economic Zone to promote foreign investment and export to other countries. These zones have preferential treatment in manufacturing process. Their products are targeted for export market. Taiwan and China are the chief example; where these zones have become major attractions of FDI (Amirahmadi and Weiping Wu, 1994). Exports and FDI is complementary instrument in economic growth [Veugelers and Yamawaki, 1991]. Increasing import and inward FDI increase competition on domestic market and reduce domestic firms profitability. FDI allow transfer of technology to produce and sell goods on foreign market. Empirical study found import have positive effects on competitive behavior of domestic firms and have negative effects on their profitability; it has been analyzed theoretically (e.g. by Caves [1985], Jacquemin [1982]) and empirically in the literature (e.g. by Levinsohn [1991], Pugel [1978, 1980], Turner [1980]); (Bertschek, 1995). Based on export oriented group of countries, foreign investment is a more powerful driving force in economic growth process rather than domestic investment. According to this supplementary hypothesis the elasticity of output with respect to foreign capital is predicted as exceeding with respect to domestic capital (Balasubramanyam, Salisu and Sapsford, 1996). Model For Study. Study comprises factors affecting trade volume of developing economies based on gravity equation framework. Foreign trade relation play vital role for economic development. Foreign trade is influenced by multinational corporation (M.N.Cs). These underlying relationships explain the effects, trade barriers of developing economies based on foreign trade relation. This section present trade model and its key concepts used in this study. Determinants of trade and its relationship with trade theory have been identified, tested and resulted. On the basis of comprehensive literature review; it observed that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"tariff, inflation and transportation cost are significant factors affects on trade volume of Asian countries. The trade model tested based on developed hypotheses in the next section of this research. Trade Theory Based on comprehensive literature following are the facets of trade theories focus on various concepts associated with global trade in terms of theories expanded by the scholars. Gravity Model Of Trade Theory Study found that international trade flow well described by a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“gravity equation frameworkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  indeed, gravity equation is one of the empirical accomplishment stories in economics and trade theories (Feenstra, Markusen and Rose, 1999). The gravity equation framework is one of the most popular empirical evidence for the whole range of spatial relations in economics and international trade over a period of time. Generally it apply to study determinants of trade volume and to assess various regional economic integration with respect to developing economies (Cieslik, 2007). In the context of international trade, gravity equation in its basic form nominate the amount of trade in-between two countries increases in their size and proportion to their national income, and inversely decreases by the cost of transport between them, (As measured by distance between their economic centers). This relationship closely look like Newtons (1687) law of gravitation which states that every atom in the universe attracts other atom with a force that is comparative to the product of their masses and inversely comparative to the distance among particles (Cieslik, 2007). Although gravity equation in its basic form performs a good job to justify foreign trade based on size of trading countries and distance between them. Therefore, in order to improve performance of the gravity equation in empirical studies of trade; one should take into account the impact of other factors that affects on volume of trade (Cieslik, 2007). Theoretical Foundation Of Gravity Model The concept of the gravity model based on Newtons Law of Universal gravitation which relate the force of attraction between two objects with their combined masses and distance between them. The application of gravity model in social sciences empirically proposed by James Stewart in the 1940s (Fitzsimons et al., 1999). And then originally applied to international trade by Tinbergen (1962), the gravity model predicts trade flow between any two countries as a function of their size and distance between them (Walsh, 2006). Economic size is measured by gross domestic product, population and per capita income. Distance typically calculated through transportation cost between countries capital cities. In some studies this is replaced by the measures of remoteness through G.D.P or measure distances relative to the countrys average distance with all trading partners. Extension of this approach is to calculate trade cost with respect to barriers. And other restrictions on trade flow by comparing predicted and actual levels of trade volume (Walsh, 2006). As the empirical applications of the gravity model has grown theoretically over a period of time; foundation of this model have also developed. Beginning with Anderson (1979); who illustrates gravity equation framework is consistent with a model of trade in which products are differentiated by the country of origin (Walsh, 2006). The gravity model is being established in a literature and measure potential trade between countries. The gravity model; defined by the Newtons Law of Gravitation, explain trade flow between two countries. It is one of the most popular empirical associations in economics and international trade. Earlier studies have estimated difference between observed values and predicted values those are calculated through O.L.S estimate of gravity model (Baldwin, 1994; and Nilsson, 2000); (Kalirajan and Singh, 2007). Justification Of The Gravity Model The Newtons physician primarily justify gravity model based on theoretical justification with their combined masses. Second justification for the gravity model was analyzed by Linneman (1966); (Rahman, 2003). Anderson (1979), Bergstrand (1985, 1989), Thursby (1987), Helpman Krugman (1985) share this view. Their studies identify number of variables. However, price and exchange variables can be omitted when products are perfect substitutes for one another in consumer preference. This structure of course, obtains the standard Heckscher-Ohlin (H-O) setting (Jakab 2001); (Rahman, 2003). Empirical Study Study found the gravity model in the context of international trade applied, first time independently by Tinbergen (1962) and PÃÆ' ¶yhÃÆ' ¶nen (1963) but they didnt have any theoretical justification at the beginning. The earliest but not completely successful attempts provide a theoretical justification for the gravity equation by Linneman (1966), Leamer and Stern (1970) and Leamer (1970). However, origin of the gravity equation from a model was not possible till the product homogeneity assumption; since early neoclassical trade literature was relaxed at that time (Cieslik, 2007). The first formal attempt to derive the gravity equation directly from theoretical point of view made by Anderson (1979) based on Armington hypothesis which argues that products differentiated by the country of origin. Anderson (1979) demonstrated to derive gravity equation by using properties of Cobb Douglas expenditure system when goods produced by a country. Andersons (1979) approach subsequently applied and extended by Bergstrand (1985) who derived and summarize equation in terms of trade flow (Cieslik, 2007). An alternative method proposed by Helpman (1987) who completely departed from neoclassical assumptions of traditional Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson model. Which assume monopolistic competition and product differentiation among various firm in all industries rather than countri

Why Humans Need God Essay -- Religion Belief Faith Society Essays

Why Humans Need God Why is there a God, deity, or higher consciousness in all cultures found around the world? Why won't the concept of God go away? Do humans need God? Is there even a God, by any religious standard? These are all interesting questions that spur a topic for me that may appall some Christians, but may make sense to a lot of other people. I started out a few years ago when I was evaluating my beliefs and asked myself "Why is there God?." I could not at that time believe without proof that there was a God, and I had no proof. I never got any real proof, just self realization upon self realization that there has to be a God, or at least the thoughts in my mind that corresponded with the thoughts of others in the past and in the present have been dubbed "God" to me. So I go on this journey of writing a paper questioning why in every culture from the first signs of ceremonial burials among Neanderthals to today's highly sophisticated rituals, rights and ceremonies of evolved religion, there seems to be something beyond us, higher than us, something we do not understand, but comforts us on dark, cold lonely nights when we are most vulnerable. In the book, Why God Wont Go Away, by Andrew Newberg, it seems that we are psychologically built to alleviate the existential fears and comfort us in this confusing and perilous world through invention and myths. From the earliest weapon to the latest technological revolution we are trying to make ourselves more secure in this world. That's one reason why it seems that in Christianities' earlier years it was either science or religion; you could not have both. Not only because they had conflicting goals and views, but also because when you had science, the human mind's ... ... Hayes, Brian J. "Friedrich Nietzsche God is Dead." Age-Of-The-Sage.org . 12 Nov 2003. Oct 2002. http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/philosophy/nietzsche_God_dead.html Martin, Joel W. Native American Religion. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Mbitu, Ngangar, and Ranchor Prime. Essential African Mythology. San Francisco: Thorsons, 1997. Modern Spiritualities. Eds. Laurence Brown, Bernard C. Farr, R. Joseph Hoffmann. Amherst: Prometheus, 1997. Morris, Tom W. Philosophy for Dummies. New York: IDG Books Worldwide, Inc, 1999. Newberg, Andrew, Eugene D'Aquili, and Vince Rause. Why God Won't Go Away. New York: Ballantine Books, 2002. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Gay Science: With a Prelude in Rhymes and an Appendix of Songs. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. Vintage Books, 1974.